Mernissi Essays - First Fitna, Sahabah, Arab Muslims, Quraish

Mernissi Mernissi makes the claim that "Any man who believes that a Muslim woman who fights for her dignity and right to citizenship excludes herself necessarily from the umma...is a man who misunderstands his own religious heritage, his own cultural identity" (Mernissi viii). She goes about supporting this claim by delving into the very detailed documentation of Islam history. She attributes misogyny in the past and present Muslim culture to the male elite. She gives many examples of how Muhammad and Islam have only supported equality of the sexes and also how the male elite used false hadiths and very narrow interpretations of the Koran and true hadiths for their purpose. She begins by describing how the male elite started running things right from the onset of Muhammad's death. When a successor to Muhammad was picked, it did not involve the people of the community at all or any women. It was done by a small group of followers which were very close to the prophet, a sort of elite group. This sort of leadership in Islam continued in the same manner as only the elite were involved. This helped preserve what they thought was essential and according to the interests of the participants the essentials varied. The fabrication of false hadiths by the male elite was probably the first and most popular way for them to protect their interests. The people governing knew how important it was to "seek legitimacy in and through the sacred text" (Mernissi 43). Mernissi talks about al-Bukhari, who methodically and systematically collected and verified true Hadiths. He was exiled from his native town because he refused to bring the knowledge of the Hadith to the governor of the town and have it corrupted. He knew that the invitation from the governor was made only for him to probably fabricate some Hadith which would benefit the politicians. Many did not follow al-Bukhari's example but allowed themselves to be bought for a price and fabricated Hadiths for the politicians. Even Companions of the Prophet fabricated Hadiths in order to promote their own personal views. In the case of the Hadith which states, "Those who entrust their affairs to a woman will never know prosperity", Mernissi argues that this Hadith was never uttered by the Prophet and probably made up for personal reasons of Abu Bakra, who claimed to have heard the Hadith spoken by the Prophet. First, she finds out from research that he must have had an excellent memory because he recalled the Hadith about twenty-five years after the Prophet supposedly uttered it. At the same time "the caliph `Ali retook Basra after having defeated `A'isha at the Battle of the Camel" (Mernissi 50). This leads Mernissi to wonder if Abu Bakra made up the Hadith to give reason for not supporting `A'isha in the fitna. Mernissi also attacks the morals of Abu Bakra and finds out that he had been found to give false testimony in a case to the caliph `Umar. So with the improbable case of extraordinary memory and lying in other areas of his life, Mernissi gives reason to reject Abu Bakra as a reliable source of Hadith. Mernissi discounts another Hadith made by Abu Hurayra, "The Prophet said that the dog, the ass, and woman interrupt prayer if they pass in front of the believer, interposing themselves between him and quibla." (Mernissi 64) First, Mernissi finds that when `A'isha heard of this Hadith, she rebuked it by saying that she had seen the Prophet saying his prayers while she was lying on the bed between him and quibla (Mernissi 70). History also gives Abu Hurayra a very anti-feminine personality. He had a nickname given to him by the Prophet which he disliked because of the trace of femininity in it. This lead him to say "..the male is better than the female" (Mernissi 71). He is also an object of distrust because even al-Bukhari stated that "people said that Abu Hurayra recounts too many Hadith" (Mernissi 79). He even confessed and retracted his words completely about a Hadith concerning sex and fasting. Mernissi again uses `A'isha's refutings and the tainted personality of the individual claiming the Hadith to reject it. I agree and like the way Mernissi goes about the finding wrong the Hadiths that put women down. It is pretty hard to argue with her method and its validity. She finds the background to the person, time, and events that the Hadith came from and sheds new light on it. Also by exposing to the public `A'isha's responses to the Hadiths helps her drive her point home. No wonder `A'isha is hidden in history

2 Types of Computer Science Essay Writing Prove Yourself in 30 Topics with 5 Simple Steps

2 Types of Computer Science Essay Writing Prove Yourself in 30 Topics with 5 Simple Steps Today, Computer Science is an academic discipline that incorporates the study of computers and computing by means of scientific methods. This field is probably relevant for many students whether someone studies the humanities, social sciences or fine arts. A wide variety of issues, such as security against viruses and spyware, the effective usage of the World Wide Web to find the necessary information, can occur to everyone. But not everyone, who has a personal computer, needs to write a computer science essay. If you are still required to deal with computer science essay writing, it is better to know all the ins and outs of this process. This computer science essay writing guide is to help you end up with successful writing a particular type of essays on Computer Science. You’ll know the purpose of essay writing and its main features that give a reasonable fit to an A+ essay paper. Broad Type of Computer Science Essay Writing There are a lot of discussions about computers in the academic field. This fact allows many instructors to give the assignment to write a computer science essay on a broad topic to know your opinion and arguments for it. The main purpose of a broad essay is to demonstrate the ability to construct a coherent argument and employ critical thinking skills. So, in what computer science topics you can show this ability? The following list of broad Computer Science essay topics gives the chance to try yourself: Computer Science: My Programming Experiences Computerization of Everyday Life: 10 Pros and Cons of This Process The Success of the Computer Science in the 21st Century The Concept of the Internet in the Computer Science: Is It Central? 7 Top Possibilities Given by the Course of Computer Science High-Tech Workers of the Silicon Valley: Who Are These Representatives of the Computer Science? The History of Computer Science: How Did It Start Developing? The Importance of Computer Science: Should Everyone Be a Scientist? Is a Career in the Computer Science Realizable for Most Students? Artificial Intelligence Vs. Human Brain: Who Copes with Problems Better? The Impact of the Computer Science on X Spheres of Our Life 6 Research Interests in Computer Science 5 Computer Science Innovations and Latest Trends 7 Modern-Day Myths about Computer Science: X Contraries to Them Hacker’s Ways of Working: Threat or Security? The Future of the Virtual Reality Technologies Programming Language Vs. Human Language: What Skill Is More Employable? The Timeline of Robotics: When Did It Start and When Will It Stop? How Much Supervision Do Computer Science Students Need? 10 Biggest Names in Computer Science: Who Can Impact the Industry: A Talented or Trained Person? Specified Type of Computer Science Essay Writing Under the broad umbrella term of computer science, there are many areas of specialization available to students pursuing computer science degrees. Below you’ll find a variety of narrow essay topics on Computer Science chosen according to the Stanford’s rating for the most popular Computer Science courses over the past 5 academic years: 7 Algorithmic Techniques: An Analysis of Computational Problems 5 Ways of Storing and Organizing Data in a Computer: What Is More Efficient? The Intelligence of Machines: What Branch of Computer Science Aims to Create It? The Vulnerability Analysis: 4 Potential Ways of Hacker Attack The Database Privacy and Security: Evaluating the Information Retrieval and Processing A Cryptographic Protocol as a Basis for Security of a System Software Engineering: 10 Fundamental Principles and Techniques 5 Categories Used for Classifying Computer Networks Computer Vision: From Object to Character Recognition Cloud Communications and Networking: Its Quality and Open Challenges. 5 Simple Steps from Our Writers of Successful Essay Writing on Computer Science After you know what to cover in computer science essays, you should familiarize with the ways of covering this or that topic. So, if you take into consideration a broad essay topic, you are supposed to show your personal attitude to the process of the computerization of the modern world, its effects on human life and achievements in the scientific area. In fact, a significant amount of research work, efforts, and writing techniques is expected of everyone who wants to write a high-quality computer science essay. If you follow X simple steps, you will find that your essay almost writes on its own. You are responsible only for applying essay ideas on paper. Get started. You should be focused enough on the ultimate result to write an A+ essay rather than to meet your instructor’s desire to see your paper. It is better to switch off your computer devices despite you’re going to write about them. Yes, it is a great technological advancement, but it can consume much your time. You can say this point while dealing with the topic ‘The Effects of the Computerization of Everyday Life: X Pros and Cons of This Process’. There is even a term ‘screen time’ when people talk about any time spent in front of an electronic device. So, if you realize the addiction to checking your e-mail or news feed on Facebook or Twitter, or playing games, get rid of all electronic devices around you for the moment. The device-related distraction won’t come in handy. Instead, site or app blocker extensions will be useful to you. Get prepared for essay writing. After nothing distracts you, you should prepare all the essentials of essay writing – a topic, an essay question, an outline, the reliable sources of information and an essay writing guide. For example, this article can be at hand as an excellent guide in your computer science essay writing. In general, keep in mind that essay writing basically comes down to 2 points: content and its formatting. To create a valuable content of your essay, gather and analyze the information with a proper way of formatting in APA, MLA, Chicago, Turabian or Harvard styles. For example, at Library Learning Resources Division, you’ll find the reference resources, citing rules relevant for the Computer Science. Keep track of information. Essays are assigned not only with the aim to develop your writing skills, but also with the other aims. For example, you have a chance to show off how you are good at researching. Make sure you quote other people’s opinions, even if they differ, and refer to sources from which you can take the strong evidence on the topic you’re writing about. For that reason, you need to point out the central concepts of your computer science topic, its main points, and subpoints. Then, you can make some keyword queries in scientific bibliographies or electronic libraries like ACM, Elsevier, Springer, etc.) It is one of the best solutions to write down a source already in the correct citation format and the essential data for your essay. So, there won’t be the need to go back and look them up again later. Come up with the essay parts. One of the best recommendations from the experienced essay authors remain similar despite certain features of every separate text type – stick to a common essay structure. After thinking on a topic, finding the relevant information, forming an essay question, then a thesis statement of your future computer science paper, you should create a plan of this essay with the essential parts – introduction, body, and conclusion. Nothing additional should be added to your essay writing. Look at the following picture and keep in mind the tips in every part of an essay. Revise your computer science essay. You may be exhausted from the essay writing process. But you’ll be more worn-out when you submit your paper for a grade or for publication, and as a result, it won’t be accepted or will be returned to you. All your efforts were in vain. Want this outcome of your struggle with computer science essays? Then, take some time for close editing and proofreading. Even if you are sure about the organization of your essay, you may make some mechanical or typographical errors in spelling. Once again, return to the benefit of using a computer nowadays, especially for the benefit of your studies – you can make use of an online proofreading option. Correct all possible mistakes in sentence structure, word choice to strengthen the overall impression from the quality of your essay writing. 5 Essay Citing Guidelines In your computer science essay, you need to refer to some additional information about the issue under consideration. You’ve already known from what types of sources you can obtain it. However, you should know how to cite them properly to avoid any plagiarism scandal at college or university. The way in which you credit your information sources in an essay depends on the formatting style your professor requires APA, MLA, Chicago, Turabian, etc. You can incorporate someone else’s work into your own in three ways – quoting, summarizing and paraphrasing; When you find a relevant source for your essay, keep in mind that you should cite the author(s), year of publication. The more information you’ll find about a source, the easier it will be to compile a reference list at the end of writing; All references are listed in alphabetical order based the first authors last name; Any quotation in your essay begins and ends with quotation marks; There are two types of citations in-text or parenthetical. Besides the correctness of formatting citations, you should strive for two goals in the use of quotations to achieve their efficiency in your work and add some grace to your thoughts. You should provide quotations referring to the particular context. Use quotations so that they fit the structure of your sentences by: leaving words out within an ellipsis; inserting words in square brackets; replacing words with others. Now, we can be at peace with ourselves as you have a complete computer science essay guide on how to write an A+ computer science essay. It is your turn to apply all the essential computer science essay tips given here. We’ll be glad to help you 24/7 whenever you need to have essays written as required by your instructor.

Famous Flash Fiction

Famous Flash Fiction Over the past few decades, flash fiction, micro-fiction, and other super-short short stories have grown in popularity. Entire journals such as Nano Fiction and Flash Fiction Online are devoted to flash fiction and related forms of writing, while contests administrated by Gulf Coast, Salt Publishing, and The Kenyon Review cater to flash fiction authors. But flash fiction also has a long and respectable history. Even before the term â€Å"flash fiction† came into common usage in the late 20th century, major writers in France, America, and Japan were experimenting with prose forms that put special emphasis on brevity and concision.   Charles Baudelaire (French, 1821-1869) In the 19th century, Baudelaire pioneered a new type of short-form writing called â€Å"prose poetry.† Prose poetry was Baudelaire’s method for capturing the nuances of psychology and experience in short bursts of description. As Baudelaire puts it in the introduction to his famous collection of prose poetry, Paris Spleen (1869): â€Å"Who has not, in bouts of ambition, dreamt this miracle, a poetic prose, musical without rhythm or rhyme, supple and choppy enough to accommodate the lyrical movement of the soul, the undulations of reverie, the bump and lurch of consciousness?† The prose poem became a favorite form of French experimental writers, such as Arthur Rimbaud and Francis Ponge. But Baudelaire’s emphasis on turns of thought and twists of observation also paved the way for the â€Å"slice of life† flash fiction that can be found in many present-day magazines. Ernest Hemingway (American, 1899-1961) Hemingway is well-known for novels of heroism and adventure such as For Whom the Bell Tolls and The Old Man and the Sea- but also for his radical experiments in super-short fiction. One of the most famous works attributed to Hemingway is a six-word short story: â€Å"For sale: baby shoes, never worn.† Hemingway’s authorship of this miniature story has been called into question, but he did create several other works of extremely short fiction, such as the sketches that appear throughout his short story collection In Our Time. And Hemingway also offered a defense of radically concise fiction: â€Å"If a writer of prose knows enough about what he is writing about he may omit things that he knows and the reader, if the writer is writing truly enough, will have a feeling of those things as strongly as though the writer had stated them.† Yasunari Kawabata (Japanese, 1899-1972) As an author steeped in the economical yet expressive art and literature of his native Japan, Kawabata was interested in creating small texts that are great in expression and suggestion. Among Kawabata’s greatest accomplishments are the â€Å"palm-of-the-hand† stories, fictional episodes and incidents that last two or three pages at most. Topic-wise, the range of these miniature stories is remarkable, covering everything from intricate romances (â€Å"Canaries†) to morbid fantasies (â€Å"Love Suicides†) to childhood visions of adventure and escape (â€Å"Up in the Tree†). And Kawabata didn’t hesitate to apply the principles behind his â€Å"palm-of-the-hand† stories to his longer writings. Near the end of his life, he crafted a revised and much-shortened version of one of his celebrated novels, Snow Country. Donald Barthelme (American, 1931-1989) Barthelme is one of the American writers most responsible for the state of contemporary flash fiction. For Barthelme, fiction was a means of igniting debate and speculation: â€Å"I believe that my every sentence trembles with morality in that each attempts to engage the problematic rather than to present a proposition to which all reasonable men must agree.† Although these standards for indeterminate, thought-provoking short fiction have guided short fiction in the late 20th and early 21st century, Barthelme’s exact style is difficult to imitate with success. In stories such as â€Å"The Balloon†, Barthelme offered meditations on strange events- and little in the way of traditional plot, conflict, and resolution. Lydia Davis (American, 1947-present) A recipient of the prestigious MacArthur Fellowship, Davis has won recognition both for her translations of classic French authors and for her many works of flash fiction. In stories such as â€Å"A Man from Her Past†, â€Å"Enlightened†, and â€Å"Story†, Davis portrays states of anxiety and disturbance. She shares this special interest in uneasy characters with some of the novelists she has translated- such as Gustave Flaubert and Marcel Proust. Like Flaubert and Proust, Davis has been hailed for her breadth of vision and for her ability to pack a wealth of meaning into carefully-chosen observations. According to literary critic James Wood, â€Å"one can read a large portion of Davis’s work, and a grand cumulative achievement comes into view- a body of work probably unique in American writing, in its combination of lucidity, aphoristic brevity, formal originality, sly comedy, metaphysical bleakness, philosophical pressure, and human wisdom.†

Fa mmeh Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Fa mmeh - Essay Example The main reason for the occupation of Egypt by the British was to safeguard the Suez Canal which was a major transport route but British did not have any defined relationship with Egypt but a protectorate till the advent of the First World War. Egypt was particularly under the authority of Evelyn Barin early 19th century and later Lord Cromer. Cromer was highly opposed to local industrial development that would overthrow British textile industry but developed high level agricultural production to grow Egypt’s economy. Cromer however, also created tangible advantages to locals particularly in the education sector via restrictive policies. The political climate was also strained when Mahdi began a rebellion against Egyptian occupation in Sudan in 1881 but was overcome. British influence was marred by local resistance until calls were made by Kamil for forcible evacuation of British rule in Egypt but the World War II reversed these forces by British declaring Egypt its protectora te after the war. On the other hand, Iran did not experience rigorous colonial impact due to the stringent impact of decentralization that had been established in Iran. Besides, the colonial influence came later relative to Egypt. Iran had suffered strenuous strains between the fall of Safavid and the Qatar dynasty. Decentralization by coercion on state authority was perpetrated by the introduction of Shi‘a religion in Iran. High recognition of their religion by the Iranian society propagated the resistance against inversion. Society members with strong religious values were also vindicated into performing state functions such as legal practices. Safavid’s fall however saw the end to religious / Shi‘a functionality as a ruling group and the government assumed responsibility with both Russia and British expressing high interest. This saw the inception of the reign of Nasir al-Din Shah. His reign initially targeted military reforms by

Physicians Assisted Suicide Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 1

Physicians Assisted Suicide - Research Paper Example In addition, the practice would lessen the urgency to develop new medicines designed to prolong life. Those who oppose the practice on religious grounds argue that it is ‘playing God’ therefore sinful. Health care professionals cite the Hippocratic Oath which forbids them from carrying out this procedure. This paper will examine the moral and ethical concerns surrounding euthanasia, clarify the meaning of the term, present arguments both for and against the practice and conclude with a recommendation to resolve the issue. The word euthanasia is from Greek origin meaning ‘good death.’ Writers of 1700’s Britain referred to euthanasia as a being a preferential method by which to ‘die well’ (â€Å"Definition†, 2007). Euthanasia describes a situation in which a terminally ill patient is administered a lethal dose of medication, is removed from a life-support system or is simply allowed to die without active participation such as by resuscitation. A doctor’s involvement in the procedure could be to either prescribe a lethal dose of drugs with the express intent of ending a life or by intravenously inserting a needle into the terminal patient who then activates a switch that administers the fatal dose (Naji et al, 2005). Physicians, lawmakers, and philosophers have debated the notion of euthanasia since the beginning of recorded history but the wide public debate regarding its legalization has only surfaced over the past four decades. In the 1970’s it bec ame lawful to draft ‘living wills’ which allows a patient to refuse ‘heroic’ life saving medical assistance in the event they were incapacitated and could only survive by artificial means (Rich, 2001). In other words, it gave the next of kin the right to direct doctors to ‘pull the plug’ if the patient’s condition was considered hopeless, a practice which is now broadly accepted. The unfortunate reality is the majority of people in the U.S. die a ‘bad death.’   A study determined that â€Å"more often than not, patients died in pain, their desires concerning treatment neglected, after spending 10 days or more in an intensive care unit† (Horgan, 1996).   Most Americans (53 percent) believe euthanasia to be not only compassionate but ethically acceptable and 69 percent would support the legalization of euthanasia according to a Gallup Poll conducted in 2004 (â€Å"Public Grapples†, 2004).   Opponents of a doctor-assisted suicide law often cite the potential for doctor abuse.   However, recent Oregon and UK laws show that you can craft reasonable laws that prevent abuse and still protect the value of human life.   For example, laws could be drafted that requires the approval of two doctors plus a psychologist, a reasonable waiting period, family members’ written consent and limits the procedure to specific medical cond itions.     

Gulf War Was A Perfect Television War Media Essay

Gulf War Was A Perfect Television War Media Essay The media representation of wars has significantly changed over last years. Previously being just an instrument of coverage and propaganda, now media are considered a competent weapon. The war of real objects is partially being replaced by the war of pictures and sounds, information war (Virilio, 2002). On the one hand, information technologies can be regarded as humane weapon, because they lead to the fewer amounts of victims. On the other hand, they directly influence the mental structures, can fulfill the conscious with false images or distort the perceptions, spread moral panics or create virtual enemies and thus are an intelligent weapon of mass distruction. One of the famous works about the usage of information technologies in the war belongs to French sociologist Jean Baudrillard, and his concept of the Gulf War 1991 as the first television war will be assessed in the essay in correlation with his theories of hyper reality and simulacrum. Those concepts are applied to the media representation of the conflict in South Ossetia. The usefulness of the concept of television war for understanding modern conflicts is proved in conclusion. Hyper reality, simulacrum and information wars Philosophical approach of Baudrillards works is concentrated around two main notions -hyper reality and simulacrum. Both terms are related to the reality of the consumer society. According to Baurillard, we all live in the world, dominated by organized perceptions, while people loose an ability to perceive the real surrounding. Instead they face artificial or adapted environments: assembled chronicles of military operations, coverage of suicidal terrorist acts. Baudrillard (1996) claims that the reality is not only possible to represent, the reality should always be ready for representation and thus it becomes a hyper reality, existing only in simulation. It consists of media and cultural images that simulate the real world. Some of this images are representations of real objects, but aggressive information technologies, television and particularly advertisement create special images, deceiving representations of non-existing objects, which Baudrillard (1998), following Plato, calls simulacra. In postmodern culture, dominated by TV and Internet, the notions of true and false representations are destroyed, as people have access only to simulations of reality, which is no more real than the simulacra representing it. Moreover, we start to believe the maps of reality as more real than own experience and take the hyper reality as the actual environment (Mann, n.d.). Consequently, simulacra, which lost any connection to real things, dont have original or prototype, and can parallel some objects, change the notion of counterfeits or false. So a correlation appears that hyper reality becomes the battlefield and the simulacra the intellectual weapons in conflicts of all levels, from the business competition to wars between countries, which gradually turn into information wars. The most widespread technique of symbolic images usage in information war is propaganda, but now in the form of marketing or PR campaigns. Such campaigns provide the basis for military operations and are a perfect tool to make conform to one side or type of thinking. Thus they are the most integrated and hidden, but also the most pervasive parts of the new wars. The censorship is widespread, because the military-media campaigns require a gap between the event and the audience, and censorship breaks the flow of information, while propaganda specialists feed media with false information (Snow, 2003). In these terms coverage of military operations is now able to influence their process as it was, for example, in the movie Wag the dog, where imaginary war actions of American troops in Albania, staged to shift public interest from the reputation crisis of the president, led to real military response. So, the role of media in the modern wars is not limited to news coverage or propaganda, the media now should be regarded more likely as the fourth front of war. The reasons for it could be different. According to sociologist Paul Virilio (2002), the escalation of cybernetic wars of persuasion and propaganda is the result of graduate changes in weapons. The first, prehistorical, wars were tactical and used weapons of obstruction (ramparts, fortresses). The epoch of political wars made them strategic and reliable on weapons of destruction (bows, missiles). The new period of transpolitical wars is characterized as logistical and uses weapons of communication (telephone, radar, satellites, information carriers), which emerged due to global information networks and tele-surveillance. The turning point of modern epoch is the integration of media and industrial army, where the capability to war without war manifests a parallel information market of propaganda, illusion, dissimulation (Viril io, 2002: 17). The image prevails over the real space and substitutes it, changes the landscape from physical to audiovisual by technological accelerants satellites, internet and high-quality video on TV. The level of media influence is dependent on the communication forms, in which it is carried, because it is possible to frame the report, provided with knowledge of certain mediums advantages (Cottle, 2003). Television with live broadcast and reliance on spectacular images, simulacra, is in these terms the best communication weapon. It makes inefficient the object, but concentrates on its representation; it is not a reality, but a construction of it (Webster, 2002). TV news is often watched with the belief that it indicates, the reality, but in fact it is a version of events, shaped by journalists values and morality. The whole reality begins and ends on television screens, and any critical attitude emerges not an original version of event, but creates other symbolic representation in live images (Webster, 2002). According to Virilio (2002), the live image attracts not critiques, but emotion, apprehension. Thus it involves the spectator to the situation, makes him dependent on televi sual interface, even if the problem doesnt concern him directly. All these advantages were used strategically for the first time in the Gulf War, which Baudrillard (1995) called both a non-existing and a first television war. Gulf War 1991: the first television war Three essays of Baudrillard, referred to events in Iraq during January and February 1991, were published originally in the Liberation and the Guardian and lately collected in one book The Gulf War did not take place. Before the actual war, during the strengthening of American military and propaganda, he claimed that the Gulf War will not take place in reality. During the military actions his catchy slogan was that the Gulf War is not taking place and right after the operation he said that the Gulf War hadnt taken place, because the Western public perceived it just as a series of hyperreal TV images. For Baudrillard, media and especially television do not provide the opportunities for effective communication. Television is the technology of non-communication because it limits the interaction needed for symbolic exchange by giving the large amounts of signs impossible to critically analyze and react (Groening, 2007). A war demands a struggle between counterparts, exchange, communicatio n and interaction (Webster, 2002), while Baudrillard (1995) argued that the USA overloaded the symbolic communication space in this war and moreover, the goals of George Bush and Saddam Hussein were so different that they couldnt even be considered as counterparts. Hussein, a former US ally, was not regarded as the real enemy, and the outcome of the war was predictable both for participants and for audience of war (Mann, n.d.). Researchers express the controversial idea that bombing was the most precise in history and civilian casualties thus were minimized (Kellner, 2008). Consequently, the war can be regarded as hyperreal and overloaded by media provocations. The Gulf War was understood by Paul Virilio (2002) also as a turning point in history. He called it the first information war of images, media-staged event or the first electronic war in the form of televised series, broadcast live by satellite. The difference is that Virilio accepted the idea that the war really had taken place, but it moved to the fourth front of communication weapons and instant information. He warned about the doubling of the front, a communication between place of action the Middle East and place of its immediate reception the whole world, which extends widely over the Iraqi-Saudi border. Turning the battlefield into a theatre with the symbolic counterparts- Hussein and CNN emerges the risk of turning TV audience into fans on the stadium, counting casualties like goals of the favorite team. In comparison with Baudrillard, Virilio considers TV as establishing interactivity between those making war and those watching it. But he has the same idea about the role of common people in war impotent tele-spectators, victims of intelligent weapons and the people who serve them (Virilio, 2002: 47). It is obvious that Baudrillard didnt intend to act like a devils advocate and decline the existence of the Gulf War. He agrees that a massive bombing of military and civil objects took place in Iraq in 1991. And lately he (2002) told readers that official casualties in Iraq were estimated in order of 100Â  000, not counting the losses due to consequent hunger and diseases. But the question is why so few US soldiers died in this war, that it was named a war of zero casualties on the side of allies (Virilio, 2002: 97). After analyzing Baudrillards work, it becomes clear, that despite a catchy slogan in title, in fact the author compares real events with their interpretation, and the central conclusion is that the consequence of real events could hardly be named a war, while a consequence of those events representations was perceived as a real war. This effect was a main reason why he called a Gulf War the first and the perfect television war. US-led coalition relied highly on the television. On the first night of military operation, in Kourou, Ariane rocket launched two broadcasting satellites (Virilio, 2002), and it was a sign of parallel intervention of real forces and television. The leaders decisions were significantly based on intelligence reports, coming not from eye-witnesses, but from news and images. Bush recruited CNN and its owner Ted Turner to transit messages to Iraqi people and thus held diplomacy through interposed images (Virilio, 2002). Coalition forces were ordered not to get engaged in the direct battles with Iraqi army, but to use the means of virtual war in response to Iraqi attempts to turn the conflict into traditional. After interviewing soldiers, who were on the battlefield, Baudrillard (1995) claimed that the Western TV channels, especially CNN, offered audience highly edited reports from Iraq under the shape of live feeds. ABC News through life coverage of the Gulf War convinced the nation that Star Wars works (Bass, 2002). But Hussein used media even more cynically, creating a consequence of the images of hostages and the crying children. Attractive simulacra with no meaning behind were promoted by media of both sides: the CNN journalists with the gas masks in the Jerusalem, drugged and beaten prisoners on Iraqi TV, sea-bird covered in oil and pointing eyes into the Gulf sky (Baudrillard, 1995) and the quintessential symbol the Stealth F117, undetectable bomber, that nobody have seen, but everyone knew. The first object, destructed by F117, was also symbolic the building of Hussein forces communication centre (Virilio, 2002). The effect could be correlated with the essence of the conflicts media coverage: it is possible to see it only in time it happens, there is no time to prepare for it and no sense to watch it afterwards. As the victims of F117 see it just in the moment of action, viewers see the live broadcasts at the same time with the military journalists. The last reasons for perceiving the Gulf War as a television war are its results. Baudrillard and Virilio agreed that nobody fully lost or won in the conflict. Defeated in fact, Hussein remained in power and moreover won the information war. In spite of abilities given by Pentagon, CNN lost that television war, because American government issued a document, restricting the real time of operations from the TV present time (Virilio, 2002). Trying to prevent the American audience from communication weapons of Iraq, US officially imposed censorship and turned the public to the search for new information sources. To conclude, Iraq in 1991 was a place not of real war, but of massive violence and a remote enough zone for creating simulacra and holding a perfect television war. The TV Gulf War could have seemed a perfect simulacrum, a hyperreal situation. It is possible to partially agree with Baudrillards and Virilios argumentation, as it may be really the first example in the war history, when the TV technologies were used as a competent weapon and the whole war was spectacled on TV. But from the humane point of view, the statement the Gulf War did not take place undermines the seriousness of the Iraqi civilians massacre, the consequences for the political situation in Iraq and such consequence as the spread of international terrorism, which now is often perceived as the same symbolic non-event (Baudrillard, 2002): it catches the eye on TV screen when happening somewhere, but is not fully understood as possible to happen with the viewer. Nevertheless, Baudrillards theory is useful for understa nding representations of other modern wars, for example, the recent conflict between Georgia, South Ossetia and Russia. South Ossetia 2008 media war Conflict in South Ossetia will remain in the history of the post-Soviet area as a first war, which media helped to spread from the inter-country to cross-continental level. Known as Georgian-Ossetian war, the conflict in August 2008 turned into confrontation between Georgia and USA on one side and Russia, South Ossetia and Abkhazia on the other. On the 8 August Georgia started a bombing of its separatist region South Ossetia. The next day Russia deployed troops in Ossetia and started military operation against Georgia. The USA government expressed eagerness to intervene, but on the 16 August the ceasefire was signed. The actual political result is recognizing the independence of South Ossetia and Abkhazia from Georgia by several countries, leading by Russia, and high tensions in the region. The number of casualties is still discussed and differs from 160 to 2000 on Ossetian side and from 60 to 400 on Georgian. Baudrillards concept of hyperreal television war is the perfect way of understanding this simulacra-rich conflict. The date of its beginning was a sign itself it was the day of opening the Olympic Games in Beijing, when by ancient traditions all the conflicts should be postponed. The violation of symbolic tradition instantly attracted the attention of worlds media. Artillery system Grad, used by Georgian forces as well as totally destructed building of hospital in Ossetian capital Tskhinvali, became symbols of civilian massacre. The anecdotic situation, when American audience mixed the Georgia as the Caucasus country and the US state, and started panics, was spread by media. Russian media discussed the interview with the 12-year-old ossetian girl on the Fox News, where she accuses Georgia, while being roughly interrupted by the journalist (Kukolevsky, 2008). And even unaware people remember Georgian president Mikheil Saakashvili, nervously chewing his necktie during the live TV inte rview. All those images were born by the war, which Georgian minister Temur Yakobashvili called a war for international public opinion (Collin, 2008). The media became a crucial battlefield in the conflict between Tbilisi and Moscow. The Georgian side claimed that it tried to reconquer its territory while Russian troops illegally invaded into it. Russians responded that Georgian government organized genocide, while Russian mission was to enforce peace. Both sides accused each other of spending millions of dollars on propaganda. Both sides even employed European PR agencies to promote their viewpoint. Georgia, backed by Western allies, from the beginning dominated in the information war. Started with cyberattacks and blocking of Russian TV, it used the help of USA and Great Britain, who didnt engage into real conflict, but actively engaged in the information one. All the leading global media CNN, Fox News, BBC, Sky News, Reuters, Associated Press were pro-Georgian. For example, Sky News showed a video report about the bombings of Tskhinvali by Georgian troops with a title Russia bombs the Georgian region South Ossetia (InoSmi, 2008; CNN, 2008). Georgia used a main advantage of Baudrillards television war that the world revealed the war from TV news. European audience, unaware of remote Caucasus regions, didnt know that some American and European correspondents presented the videos from Ossetian Tskinvali as the videos from Georgia (Vesti, 2009). Even Russian Foreign minister Sergej Lavrov agreed, that Russia lost that information war, but presented it as evidence, that Russia i s not an aggressor, otherwise it would have prepared a successful strategy (RIA Novosti, 2008). Nevertheless, I consider the results of Russian-Georgian information war as controversial as the results of real week-long conflict. The aim of attracting Western support wasnt achieved by any side. For example, German press claimed the conflict broadened the tensions between Russia and the West (Mannteufel, 2008), while some of British media found evidence of Georgia being an aggressor, guilty in war crimes (Milne, 2008). Some analysts consider Georgian media campaign as more effective because, for example, English-speaking ministers were always available for interview (Collin, 2008), but the media coverage was often favorable to Russia. The Russian strategy in this war could have been more effective, if used the overviewed simulacra images actively, because they all were really catchy and could influence the target audiences. Also Russia could have provided the world media with evidence of Georgian genocide by opening an access to a war zone for journalists. Moreover, it could be useful to prepare a strategic crisis communication plans for the possible conflicts of this kind. But anyway, the negative image of Russia, popular among Western media, could undermine by now any communication efforts. To change the situation, Russia should become a part of global media system, which is impossible because of American domination. The main idea of case study is that in August 2008 South Ossetia became a centre not of a real war, which ended in one week, but of an information war, which lasts till now. On this battlefield a little Georgia, backed by Western transnational media, can beat the huge Russia and create herself an image of a victim of Russian military machine (Zinenko, 2008). Thus it proves the thesis of Baudrillard and Virilio, that the wars of new generation are being won or lost in the space of media and information technologies. Conclusion The theoretical concepts of information and especially television wars by Baudrillard and Virilio, engaged in the essay with the real wars in Iraq 1991 and South Ossetia 2008, emerge the question of what Kellner (2005) calls a centrality of media politics in advanced foreign policy. Of course, the idea of hyperreal television war is an ideal model, and by now there was no conflict that has been totally televisual. Critiques of Baudrillard draw an attention to his hyper-postmodern approach (Hegarty, 2004) or lack of meaningful political engagement (Economic expert, n.d.). Nevertheless, the fact remains in both analyzed war cases and in numerous other conflicts of the last decades the media opened the fourth front, created a hyperreal space of mutual information attacks and marketing-style campaigns, used the simulacra-like images to influence the audience and to attract it to one side. Moreover, media become a means of searching allies or oppositely turn back to life the old confrontations, like in case of South Ossetia they emerged a new spiral of Cold War between Russia and the USA (RIA Novosti, 2008). Consequently, the governments of new generation should consider media campaigns as a part of any successful military operations, and the people, who dont want to be manipulated be spectacular images, should try to be less ignorant and more human-oriented.

Editorial Analysis Essay

â€Å"We are all equal; it is not birth but virtue alone that makes the difference.† This insightful quote from the famous French philosopher and historian â€Å"Voltaire† seems to accurately represent the beliefs of the factions of American citizens pushing to allow women to fight in combat positions within the US Armed Forces. Though the topic has just recently been boosted into the media and congressional politics, it has been long debated. A rather current editorial from USA Today titled: â€Å"Open Combat Positions to Women† outlines the recent developments in the status of a much disputed and controversial issue facing the nation today. Though somewhat less in-depth than some opposing opinions, the USA Today article establishes credible and provoking arguments with specific evidence that incites some hesitation on behalf of the naysayers contradictory reports and dissents; all the while, creating a valid representation of the views offered by the supporters . In the article mentioned above, there are many components to the argument and evidence presented. As far as tone and stylistic approach, the author remains very serious, stern, and unyielding throughout and presents the opposing viewpoint as â€Å"clouded in fiction† and â€Å"removed from reality†. Though the opposition isn’t represented as ignorant, the author is very firm in their opinions and believes that anyone who disagrees is simply in denial or has some personal stake that would negatively affect them if women were to enter into combat in the armed forces. In the beginning of the USA Today editorial, two specific examples of women who have placed their lives on the line or been injured by participating in extremely dangerous missions are given. The author appeals to the reader’s emotions with these examples and gives accurate evidence of women who already risk their lives but don’t receive recognition for it. Statistics are also presented that evaluate the many women who have lost their lives and been injured while serving in the armed forces and participating in missions whose â€Å"main purpose wasn’t direct combat on the ground.† The author goes on to explain that while women are fighting and risking their lives on the battlefield, the government refuses to acknowledge their sacrifices and give them equal rights to serve their country. Also in the beginning of the editorial, the author refers back to the two women who fought on the front lines. Those women as well as two other servicewomen filed suit in attempt to overturn the law established in 1994 which states as follows: †Rule: Service members are eligible to be assigned to all positions for which they are qualified, except that women shall be excluded from assignment to units below the brigade level whose primary mission is to engage in direct combat on the ground, as defined below. Definition: Direct ground combat is engaging an enemy on the ground with individual or crew served weapons, while being exposed to hostile fire and to a high probability of direct physical contact with the hostile forces personnel. Direct combat take s place well forward on the battlefield while locating an closing with the enemy to defeat then by fire, maneuver or shock effect.† The author goes on to state that, despite what happens in court with the lawsuit filed by the four servicewomen, the issue should never have to go to court in order to be acted upon. The author seems to think that it is simply a matter of logical thinking. Some other supporting evidence in the editorial is the Author’s use of a Gallup Pole to prove that Americans no longer oppose the idea of women on the front lines. Also specific quotes are used from a well-know male armor officer who attests to women already risking their lives in the line of fire but not being recognized for it because the government has contorted the laws and definitions. At the end of the editorial, the author goes into some details about the physical requirements for those serving in combat positions, how the solution is simple, and how the armed forces should strive for equality and concludes that congress is taking small steps in the right direction. From an analytical point of view, the editorial from USA Today immediately established credibility with the first evidence and supporting examples. There is an abundance of evidence for the short two-page window that the author has to offer it. The author doesn’t use any jargon or political terms meant to confuse or mislead the reader. Also, the author does a very satisfactory job of explaining the facts surrounding the argument without being biased or one-sided. Though there is room for much improvement, overall the editorial is a firm and testable argument and serves its purpose well. As in most any written argument, the author wants to present their opinions in the most positive and factual light. Usually only supporting evidence is given for the reader to comprehend and digest. This includes: specific accounts with concurring viewpoints and validating examples. While the author will oftentimes address or evaluate the opposition, it would be counteractive to the whole foundation and motive of the argument to agree with, or present facts in favor of, the opposite side. The article previously discussed and critiqued mostly follows this schema. Though there are some hidden premises, the author does briefly address some of the opposing viewpoints. The editorial only very briefly mentions the opposing argument that: â€Å"a change in policy may cost lives† but offers no retort to the claim. Also, the fact that â€Å"†¦some infantrymen would be unable to take orders from a female combat leader†¦Ã¢â‚¬  is brought up and the author offers a seemingly simple solution to this complex counterargument. The final recognition of opposing opinion by the author is in the statement claiming: †Many of the objections trotted out by opponents simply don’t hold up to scrutiny.† Again, the author fails to prove this statement with in-depth evidence and goes on to only address one specific â€Å"objection trotted out by opponents.† The issue featured in the USA Today editorial â€Å"Open Combat Jobs to Women† is difficult to resolve for many possible reasons. First, there are no previous precedents in the situation of women in the armed forces that can help legislation to predict the possible gain or loss they will receive. There doesn’t seem to be a way to calculate what the reaction will be to letting women serve in combat until legislation allows it. In reference to the lawsuit by the four servicewomen, the Supreme Court must also set a new precedent. As with any issue involving women’s rights or equal rights in general, the Constitution is always brought into discussion. Problems encountered in our society that call for an interpretation of the Constitution are often met with an incredible amount of hesitation, deliberation and conflict among citizens, social groups, minorities and legislators. USA Today’s Editorial creates a valid representation of the supporting viewpoints for women in combat positions while also establishing credibility with provoking arguments that incite hesitation for opposition. To review somewhat, although the author does an adequate job in arguing their point, there is some room for improvement both structurally and logistically. However, from a reader’s point of view, the editorial has a reasonably strong argument that at least provokes the reader to question their current beliefs and views on the topic discussed.